The core principle of nanotechnology in antiviral research lies in leveraging the unique size, surface chemistry, and tunable structures of nanoscale materials to interact precisely with viral particles or infected cells. This precise interaction enables efficient drug delivery, direct viral inactivation, or blockade of viral entry, providing versatile strategies to combat viral infections. One key application is the use of nanocarriers, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, or metallic nanocarriers, to encapsulate antiviral drugs or nucleic acids. These carriers protect the active agents from in vivo degradation, enable targeted release at infection sites, enhance bioavailability, and reduce systemic toxicity. Beyond delivery, certain metallic nanoparticles, including silver and copper, as well as carbon-based nanomaterials, exhibit direct antiviral activity by binding to viral surface proteins or envelopes. This disrupts viral structures or inhibits interactions with host receptors, effectively acting as a "virus decoy" or inducing direct viral inactivation.
Another innovative approach involves nanodecoys or nanoviruses—engineered nanoparticles designed to mimic viral surfaces. These structures can preemptively capture viruses, reducing their ability to enter host cells, while also adsorbing excess inflammatory factors to mitigate immune hyperactivation during infection. In addition, functionalized nanoprobes enable highly sensitive and specific detection of viral nucleic acids, proteins, or intact viral particles. This capability supports rapid, low-cost diagnostics and early screening, which are crucial for timely intervention. The combined effects of these mechanisms make nanotechnology a powerful and multifaceted platform for antiviral research. It has demonstrated significant potential across a wide range of viruses, including HIV, influenza, Zika, Ebola, and SARS-CoV-2, and has become a critical interdisciplinary frontier, integrating materials science, molecular biology, and nanomedicine to advance next-generation antiviral strategies.
Viruses depend on host cells for replication, and conventional antiviral agents often target a limited number of viral or cellular components, leaving many viral stages unchecked. Nanoparticles can overcome these limitations by providing:
Multifunctional Intervention: A single nanoparticle can simultaneously recognize viral antigens, block host–virus interactions, inactivate virions, and deliver therapeutic agents.
Size-Dependent Viral Targeting: Nanoparticles with dimensions similar to viruses (typically 20–200 nm) can form concentration gradients in biological fluids, facilitating frequent and effective collisions with viral particles.
Synergistic Loading: Nanoparticles can encapsulate multiple bioactive moieties, including metal ions, nucleic acids, and peptides, allowing coordinated antiviral action while reducing the selective pressure for resistance.
This rationale highlights nanoparticles not just as carriers but as active antiviral agents capable of engaging multiple mechanisms concurrently.
Nanoparticles exhibit distinctive physicochemical characteristics that are critical for their antiviral efficacy:
High Surface-to-Volume Ratio: Small nanoparticles, such as gold nanoparticles (<50 nm), offer extensive surface areas for binding viral proteins, enhancing detection sensitivity and antiviral activity. Carbon nanotubes, due to their high aspect ratio, demonstrate exceptional adsorption capacity for bacterial and viral particles.
Controllable Size: Polysaccharide-based nanoparticles, ranging from 50 to 700 nm, can be precisely engineered to optimize interactions with specific viruses, influence biodistribution, and improve cellular uptake.
Surface Functionalization: Nanoparticles can be modified with ligands, peptides, or nucleic acid sequences to enable targeted recognition of viral antigens or host cell receptors, improving specificity and reducing off-target interactions.
Specialized Optical, Electrical, and Magnetic Properties: Quantum dots with tunable fluorescence allow precise imaging and detection; carbon-based nanomaterials enhance electrochemical virus sensors; superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles enable targeted delivery and imaging through magnetic responsiveness.
Stimuli-Responsive Behavior: Nanoparticles can be engineered to respond to environmental cues such as pH, redox conditions, or enzymatic activity, allowing controlled release of antiviral agents at sites of infection.
Various nanoparticle types have been explored for antiviral applications, each offering unique advantages:
Metallic Nanoparticles: Gold nanoparticles provide adjustable size-dependent optical and electronic properties, high surface areas for drug loading, and multivalent interactions with viral proteins. Silver nanoparticles exhibit broad-spectrum antiviral and antimicrobial activity, including against drug-resistant strains, with efficacy influenced by particle size.
Carbon-Based Nanomaterials: Fullerene derivatives inhibit key viral proteases, while oxidized graphene can interact with both DNA and RNA viruses to reduce viral infectivity.
Inorganic Nanoparticles: Calcium phosphate nanoparticles exhibit high biocompatibility and structural versatility. Metal-incorporated clays and glass nanoparticles demonstrate strong antiviral activity against diverse viral families, reducing viral titers significantly.
Organic Nanoparticles: DNA origami structures, such as programmable "NanoGripper" constructs, can specifically bind and sequester viral particles, preventing entry into host cells and enabling detection. Lipid-based nanoparticles, including liposomes and lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), facilitate membrane fusion-like delivery of therapeutic cargos.
Nanoparticles can inhibit viral infection by preventing virus–host interactions.
Receptor Mimicry: Nanoparticles functionalized with receptor-like ligands can occupy viral binding sites, preventing attachment to host cells. For example, lipid-based nanoparticles anchored with viral receptor domains can significantly reduce viral infectivity by competitively binding viral proteins.
Spatial Hindrance: Nanoparticles embedded in textiles or coatings can physically block viral particles, providing barriers that reduce airborne transmission.
Adsorption: High-aspect-ratio nanoparticles, such as single-walled carbon nanotubes, can rapidly adsorb viral particles, potentially altering their surface conformation and reducing infectivity.
Nanoparticles can directly disrupt viral particles through physical and chemical mechanisms:
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Generation: Certain nanoparticles produce ROS that oxidize viral proteins and lipid envelopes, compromising structural integrity.
Metal Ion Release: Nanoparticles containing silver, copper, or other metals can release ions that disrupt viral protein disulfide networks, destabilizing viral capsids.
Physical Disruption: Sharp-edged nanoparticles, including graphene derivatives, can damage viral envelopes or capsids through direct mechanical interactions.
Photocatalytic and Photothermal Effects: Metal or metal-oxide nanoparticles under light exposure can generate reactive species or localized heat, inducing structural damage to viral proteins and membranes.
Efficient intracellular delivery is critical for interfering with viral replication:
Enhanced Cellular Uptake: Lipid-based and polymeric nanoparticles improve intracellular accumulation of antiviral agents.
Endosomal Escape: Nanoparticle stiffness and surface design influence the efficiency of endosomal escape, enabling delivery of therapeutic cargos into the cytoplasm.
Stimuli-Responsive Release: Environmental triggers such as pH or redox conditions allow controlled release of antiviral molecules within infected cells.
Multifunctional Synergy: Nanoparticles can combine drug delivery with auxiliary mechanisms, such as oxidative stress induction, to amplify antiviral effects.
Fig.1 Nanoparticles blocking virus infection mechanisms1,2.
BOC Sciences offers versatile nanoparticles engineered for targeted drug delivery and therapeutic applications. Our customized solutions enhance treatment efficacy and precision.
Nanoparticles, owing to their distinctive physicochemical properties, have emerged as versatile platforms for antiviral drug and vaccine delivery. By precisely controlling particle size, surface functionalization, and material composition, these nanoscale systems can achieve efficient cargo encapsulation, protection, and targeted release. This enables enhanced bioavailability, improved cellular uptake, and optimized antiviral efficacy. Among the most widely utilized nanoparticle systems are LNPs, polymer-based nanoparticles, and metal or metal oxide nanocarriers, each offering unique advantages tailored to specific antiviral and anti-infective applications.
Lipid nanoparticles have established themselves as a cornerstone technology for RNA-based therapeutics and vaccine delivery. Their success in facilitating mRNA delivery highlights their ability to protect fragile nucleic acids from degradation and ensure intracellular transport to the cytoplasm. LNPs are designed to encapsulate RNA efficiently while maintaining structural integrity, thereby preventing premature hydrolysis or enzymatic breakdown during transit through biological fluids.
A critical feature of these systems is their ability to respond to acidic endosomal environments. Traditional amino-lipid LNPs and novel ionizable guanidinium-based LNPs (G-LNPs) exploit pH-triggered protonation within endosomes to enable endosomal escape, ensuring cytoplasmic release of the RNA payload. Furthermore, certain LNPs exhibit organ-specific targeting, such as enhanced splenic accumulation, which facilitates delivery to antigen-presenting cells and robust activation of the immune response. Studies have also explored co-delivery strategies, wherein LNPs carry both mRNA and essential metabolites, such as ATP, to optimize the intracellular translational microenvironment. This approach improves protein expression efficiency even under hypoxic or stressed conditions, demonstrating the versatility of LNPs in fine-tuning intracellular RNA delivery.
Polymer and metal oxide nanoparticles offer complementary advantages for antiviral drug delivery, particularly in achieving controlled release and multifunctional activity. Host-guest interactions in polymeric systems, such as cyclodextrin-based nanoparticles, allow pH-responsive drug release within acidic microenvironments. Similarly, composite materials such as sodium alginate-CuxZn1−xO nanoparticles can sustain the release of antiviral agents like zidovudine (AZT) over extended periods, following diffusion-controlled kinetics, thus providing precise temporal control over drug availability.
These nanocarriers also provide intrinsic antiviral or antimicrobial functionality. For instance, cobalt-based ZIF-67-derived nanosheets exhibit high-affinity binding to viral surface proteins, effectively blocking viral entry into host cells, while simultaneously acting as active antiviral agents. Such multifunctional systems combine the therapeutic effect of the encapsulated drug with the inherent bioactivity of the nanoparticle itself, enhancing overall antiviral efficacy and reducing the need for high drug dosages.
Table 1. Overview of Nanocarrier Systems for Antiviral Drug and Vaccine Delivery.
| Nanoparticle Type | Core Material Examples | Loaded Cargo | Key Features | Major Applications |
| Lipid Nanoparticles | Ionizable guanidinium lipids (G-LNPs), SM102 | mRNA (e.g., vaccines) | Efficient encapsulation, endosomal escape, splenic targeting | RNA therapeutics, vaccine delivery |
| Polymer Nanoparticles | Cyclodextrin, sodium alginate-CuxZn1−xO | Antiviral drugs (e.g., AZT) | High surface area, controlled release, biocompatibility | Antiviral drug delivery |
| Metal Oxide Nanoparticles | Silica-coated gold nanorods, cobalt-based nanosheets | Antiviral agents or targeted therapeutics | Tunable optical properties, surface functionalization, photothermal synergy | Targeted drug delivery, antiviral therapy |
The future of anti-infective nanomedicine emphasizes multifunctionality, stimuli-responsive release, and integration with diagnostic platforms. These advances aim to maximize therapeutic efficiency, broaden antiviral spectrum, and provide real-time feedback on treatment efficacy.
Multifunctional nanocomposites are emerging as a key strategy for broad-spectrum antiviral and antimicrobial protection. By integrating drug delivery capabilities with intrinsic bioactivity, these materials can achieve synergistic effects. For example, sodium alginate-CuxZn1−xO composites not only serve as carriers for antiviral drugs but also exhibit inherent antimicrobial properties, providing dual-function protection. Similarly, organ-targeted lipid nanoparticles like G-LNPs can efficiently deliver RNA vaccines to antigen-presenting cells, inducing precise immune activation and offering strategies to counter rapidly mutating pathogens.
Stimuli-responsive nanomaterials enhance therapeutic precision by releasing active agents in response to specific biological triggers. pH-responsive systems, such as guanidinium-based LNPs, cyclodextrin nanoparticles, and sodium alginate-metal oxide composites, exploit the acidic microenvironments of infected tissues or endosomal compartments to trigger controlled drug release. Beyond pH, emerging approaches explore responsiveness to redox potential, enzymatic activity, or external physical stimuli such as light or magnetic fields, enabling highly precise spatiotemporal control over antiviral therapy.
Nanotechnology is increasingly bridging the gap between therapy and diagnostics. Certain nanocarriers are designed to combine drug delivery with imaging or sensing functionalities, allowing real-time monitoring of therapeutic efficacy. For example, titanium nitride-based nanoelectrode arrays have been developed for high-sensitivity virus detection, which can be coupled with nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems to create an integrated theranostic platform. This convergence enables feedback-controlled drug release and provides a foundation for closed-loop treatment strategies in antiviral and anti-infective applications.
BOC Sciences offers a diverse portfolio of research-grade nanoparticles designed to support cutting-edge antiviral and anti-infection studies. Through high-precision synthesis and rigorous material characterization, these nanoparticles provide controlled particle size distribution, morphology, crystal structure, and surface functionalization, ensuring experimental reproducibility and data reliability. The product range includes metal, oxide, and composite nanoparticles, which can be widely applied in fundamental microbiology research, anti-biofilm material development, nanoparticle delivery systems, and surface sterilization strategies. BOC Sciences' nanoparticles not only meet scientific research requirements but also provide a solid material foundation for the development of next-generation pathogen control technologies.
Silver (Ag) Nanoparticles: Silver nanoparticles are widely used in research due to their broad-spectrum antimicrobial and antiviral properties. Their primary mechanisms include sustained release of silver ions (Ag+) that disrupt bacterial proteins and key enzymes, inhibit DNA replication and cellular metabolism; direct interaction with microbial cell membranes to increase membrane permeability and trigger cytoplasmic leakage; and generation of ROS that oxidatively damage microbial proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. These multi-pathway mechanisms make silver nanoparticles particularly effective against drug-resistant strains and viral propagation. Applications include wound dressings, antimicrobial coatings for medical devices, air and water sterilization, and fundamental studies of microbial mechanisms. Surface functionalization further enhances the stability and biocompatibility of silver nanoparticles to meet diverse experimental needs.
Copper (Cu) Nanoparticles: Copper nanoparticles exhibit rapid, broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, primarily through the release of Cu2+ ions that induce oxidative stress and by interacting with bacterial membrane proteins and viral surface proteins, thereby disrupting membrane integrity and viral adsorption. Copper nanoparticles can also interfere with microbial metabolic pathways and enzyme activity, preventing cell proliferation and inducing cell death. They act rapidly against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and have demonstrated antiviral effects by inhibiting viral attachment, entry, and replication. Applications include high-contact surface coatings, laboratory pathogen control, antiviral device development, and industrial disinfection materials. Surface modification with polymers or organic molecules enhances dispersion and long-term stability, expanding their practical applications.
Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Nanoparticles: Zinc-based nanoparticles are noted for their multi-mechanism antimicrobial activity. Their primary actions include ROS generation to induce oxidative stress and damage microbial cell membranes and DNA; release of Zn2+ ions that interfere with microbial enzymatic systems and metabolic processes; and enhanced ROS production under photocatalytic conditions, increasing bactericidal efficiency. ZnO nanoparticles can also modulate surface charge and morphology to strengthen interactions with microbial membranes, further improving antimicrobial performance. Applications span food surface preservation, medical surface coatings, environmental sterilization, and anti-biofilm research. With good biocompatibility and stable dispersion in various media, zinc nanoparticles can be combined with polymeric materials or coatings to achieve sustained antimicrobial effects.
Table 2. Functional Nanoparticles for Infection Prevention and Therapeutics.
| Product | Description | Inquiry |
| Lipid Nanoparticles | Efficiently deliver mRNA and antiviral nucleic acids, protecting them from degradation in vivo, while enhancing intracellular uptake through endosomal escape, enabling precise viral-targeted therapy and vaccine delivery. | Inquiry |
| Polymer Nanoparticles | Achieve controlled release of antiviral drugs for prolonged inhibition of viral replication, with excellent biocompatibility, reducing drug dosage and minimizing side effects. | Inquiry |
| Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) | Inhibit viral infection through ion release, ROS generation, and viral membrane disruption via multiple pathways, suitable for medical device coatings, air, and water disinfection. | Inquiry |
| Metal Oxide Nanoparticles | Possess photothermal, photocatalytic, or metal ion release capabilities to disrupt viral structures and enhance antiviral drug efficacy, providing multi-mechanism viral inhibition. | Inquiry |
| Copper Nanoparticles (CuNPs) | Rapidly inactivate diverse viruses and bacteria by disrupting viral proteins and inhibiting viral adsorption, providing efficient surface protection against infection. | Inquiry |
| Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) | Suppress viral replication and microbial growth via ROS generation and Zn2+ ion release, applicable to environmental, food, and medical surface disinfection. | Inquiry |
| Carbon-Based Nanomaterials | High surface area and adsorption capacity capture viruses, with mechanical and chemical effects to disrupt viral structures; compatible with sensors for viral detection and protection. | Inquiry |
Nanostructured materials demonstrate significant advantages in inhibiting microbial growth and preventing biofilm formation. Their mechanisms of action include modulating surface energy and nanoscale roughness to reduce microbial adhesion, interfering with quorum-sensing signals to prevent biofilm maturation, and enhancing the penetration and efficacy of conventional antimicrobial agents. Additionally, nanostructures can create mechanical barriers or induce localized oxidative stress to disrupt microbial microenvironments, further improving antimicrobial efficiency. These nanomaterials are applicable to medical device coatings, chronic wound infection prevention studies, and industrial environments prone to persistent microbial colonization, providing high experimental and application flexibility.
Nanoparticle-based coatings provide long-lasting antimicrobial and antiviral protection on surfaces. By incorporating silver, copper, or zinc nanoparticles onto metals, glass, plastics, and polymeric materials, controlled release of active ions can be achieved, enhancing surface adhesion and durability while synergistically improving antimicrobial efficiency. Nanocoatings can be combined with photocatalytic agents or antimicrobial polymers to achieve multi-mechanism pathogen inhibition, reducing the risk of microbial transmission in high-touch environments. Applications include medical device surface protection, laboratory high-contact areas, industrial disinfection equipment, and public facility sanitation, offering stable and reliable surface protection for both research and industrial applications.
Table 3. Nanoparticle Services for Antiviral and Anti-Infection Research.
| Service | Service Description | Inquiry |
| Custom Nanoparticle Synthesis | Synthesize metal, oxide, polymer, and lipid nanoparticles tailored to customer requirements, precisely controlling size, morphology, and surface chemistry to support antiviral and anti-infection research. | Inquiry |
| Surface Functionalization Services | Provide ligand, peptide, or nucleic acid modifications on nanoparticles to achieve viral targeting, enhanced cellular uptake, and improved antiviral specificity. | Inquiry |
| Drug/Vaccine Loading Services | Encapsulate antiviral drugs or nucleic acids into nanoparticles to improve bioavailability, enable controlled release, and optimize treatment at viral infection sites. | Inquiry |
| Stimuli-Responsive Nanomaterial Development | Design pH-, redox-, or light-responsive nanoparticles to achieve precise drug release at infection sites and enhance antiviral efficacy. | Inquiry |
| Nanoparticle Characterization Analysis | Offer particle size distribution, morphology, crystal structure, and surface functionalization analysis to ensure performance stability and reproducibility in antiviral and anti-infection applications. | Inquiry |
| Antimicrobial/Antiviral Coating Development | Apply silver, copper, or zinc nanoparticles as surface coatings for long-lasting antiviral and antimicrobial protection, suitable for medical devices, laboratories, and public facilities. | Inquiry |
| Nanoparticle-Sensor Integration Services | Integrate nanoparticles with biosensors to enable virus detection and real-time feedback control, providing closed-loop solutions for antiviral therapy and protection. | Inquiry |
| Antimicrobial/Anti-Biofilm Activity Evaluation | Test antiviral and anti-biofilm activity of nanoparticles to verify materials' effectiveness in inhibiting infection and preventing viral transmission. | Inquiry |
Nanotechnology demonstrates significant potential in antiviral and anti-infective applications. Nanoparticles, with tunable size, surface functionalization, and multifunctional capabilities, not only enable efficient delivery of drugs and vaccines but also directly inhibit pathogens through multiple mechanisms, including blocking virus–host interactions, inactivating virions, and facilitating precise intracellular release. Metallic, metal oxide, polymeric, and lipid-based nanocarriers each offer distinct advantages and can be tailored to target specific pathogens, achieving controlled release, targeted delivery, and broad-spectrum anti-infective effects.
Within this evolving field, BOC Sciences provides comprehensive nanoparticle solutions and research support. The company offers customized synthesis of metal, oxide, polymer, and lipid nanoparticles with precise control over particle size, morphology, crystal structure, and surface functionalization, ensuring reproducibility and reliability in experimental studies. In addition, BOC Sciences provides drug and vaccine loading, surface modification, stimuli-responsive material development, and nanoparticle–sensor integration services, enhancing both delivery efficiency and multifunctional antiviral activity. With high-precision manufacturing and a versatile material platform, BOC Sciences delivers a robust foundation for research and industrial applications, supporting the development and implementation of next-generation pathogen control strategies.
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