The drive to compete and win is as old as humankind.\u00a0Throughout history, athletes have sought foods and potions\u00a0to enhance physical performance. Stimulants were one of\u00a0the first groups of substances which clearly gave an\u00a0advantageous effect and could help the athlete go through\u00a0the pain-barrier.<\/p>\n
The Roman gladiators of Circus Maximus used stimulants\u00a0mixed with alcohol to overcome fatigue and injuries.\u00a0Scandinavian warriors (the Berserkers) ate\u00a0hallucinogenic\u00a0mushrooms to prepare for battle.\u00a0The first competitive\u00a0athletes charged for stimulant abuse were swimmers in\u00a0Amsterdam in the 1860s. In the late 19th century\u00a0European cyclists were using substances such as caffeine<\/a>\u00a0and ether-soaked sugar cubes and strychnine to reduce pain\u00a0and delay fatigue.\u00a0The first reported\u00a0drug-related death\u00a0in sports (Arthur Linton in 1896) is believed to be because\u00a0of the stimulant strychnine.<\/p>\n Shortly after the Second\u00a0World\u00a0War, amphetamine became\u00a0very popular\u00a0resulting in several lethal cases. One of the\u00a0most well-known doping victims in that period was Tom\u00a0Simpson who died in 1967 on Mont Ventoux from a\u00a0combination of exhaustion, alcohol, and amphetamines. In\u00a0the same year the International Olympic Committee (IOC)\u00a0created a Medical Commission that initiated the introduction\u00a0of anti-doping regulations. The first official list of prohibited\u00a0substances which they published contained exclusively\u00a0stimulants.<\/p>\n Advances in organic chemistry in the 1950s and 1960s\u00a0yielded a wide variety of stimulant compounds. In\u00a0particular, the ability of stimulants to be used as appetite\u00a0suppressors, useful for the treatment of obesity, made this\u00a0group attractive to the pharmaceutical industry. The\u00a0challenging task was to minimize the side effects and to\u00a0maximize the appetite suppression. Unfortunately, the\u00a0addictive character and the danger of paranoia attacks,\u00a0typical for stimulant (ab)use, could not be abolished and\u00a0many stimulants are no longer therapeutically available.\u00a0Nevertheless these old\u00a0compounds remain present on the\u00a0black market.<\/p>\n Despite the danger to health of most stimulants, some\u00a0compounds of this class successfully found their way to\u00a0therapeutic use. An important group are the compounds\u00a0which increase alertness without the addictive potential of\u00a0traditional stimulants. They also have minimal effect on\u00a0sleep structure and do not result in rebound\u00a0hypersomnolence.\u00a0Currently, there are two stimulants in this class:\u00a0modafinil and adrafinil<\/a>. Other stimulants still frequently\u00a0used therapeutically are pseudoephedrine (PEPH), used\u00a0for the treatment of nasal congestion, and methylphenidate<\/a>\u00a0(also known as ritaline), used to treat\u00a0attentiondefici-thyperactivity-disorder (ADHD).\u00a0Because the\u00a0prohibited list published by the World Anti-Doping\u00a0Agency (WADA) mentions the names of 64 stimulants, only a selection is discussed here. Structures of these\u00a0are presented in Fig. 1; for all substances the trivial names,\u00a0as commonly used by the anti-doping community, will be\u00a0used throughout this paper.<\/p>\n As already mentioned above, the list of prohibited substances\u00a0published by WADA\u00a0explicitly mentions 64 stimulants.\u00a0Stimulants are the second biggest class after the anabolic\u00a0steroids.\u00a0Except that caffeine and PEPH were removed in\u00a0January 2004 and PEPH was reintroduced in January 2010,\u00a0no major modifications have been made to this class since\u00a0WADA took over the fight against doping from the IOC in\u00a02000.\u00a0The stimulants are divided in two categories: nonspecified\u00a0and specified. For non-specified stimulants (37\u00a0compounds) no reduction of the basic sanction can be\u00a0obtained, i.e. 2 years ineligibility for a first violation. If an\u00a0athlete or other person can establish how a specified\u00a0stimulant entered his or her body or came into his or her\u00a0possession and that such stimulant was not intended to\u00a0enhance the athlete\u2019s sport performance, the period of\u00a0ineligibility can be adjusted (= reduced).\u00a0These\u00a0specified stimulants are mainly compounds which might be\u00a0used therapeutically, for example ephedrines and methylphenidate.\u00a0Alongside the specified and non-specified stimulants\u00a0this class also contains substances which assigned doping\u00a0laboratories should monitor and report their findings to\u00a0WADA. These compounds include, bupropion<\/a>, caffeine<\/a>,\u00a0phenylephrine<\/a>,\u00a0phenylpropanolamine, pipradol, and synephrine<\/a>. Based upon the outcome of the monitoring\u00a0programme these compounds could be included or\u00a0withdrawn from the list.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Reference\uff1a<\/p>\n The drive to compete and win is as old as humankind.\u00a0Throughout history, athletes have sought foods and potions\u00a0to enhance physical performance. Stimulants were one of\u00a0the first groups of substances which […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":[],"categories":[181],"tags":[266,256,262,259,263,265,261,255,254],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.bocsci.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/491"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.bocsci.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.bocsci.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.bocsci.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.bocsci.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=491"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/www.bocsci.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/491\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":492,"href":"https:\/\/www.bocsci.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/491\/revisions\/492"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.bocsci.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=491"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.bocsci.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=491"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.bocsci.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=491"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}\n
<\/h4>\n
Related Products:<\/h4>\n
<\/th> <\/th> <\/th> <\/th> <\/th><\/tr><\/thead> CAS Number <\/td> Product Name <\/td> Molecular Formula <\/td> Molecular Weight <\/td> Description <\/td><\/tr> 63547-13-7 <\/td> Adrafinil<\/a><\/td> C15H15NO3S <\/td> 289.36 <\/td> \u03b1-Adrenergic agonist. Treatment of depression. <\/td><\/tr> 58-08-2 <\/td> Caffeine<\/a><\/td> C8H10N4O2 <\/td> 194.19 <\/td> Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class.It is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug, but \u2014 unlike many other psychoactive substances \u2014 it is legal and unregulated in nearly all parts of the world. There are several known mechanisms of action to explain the effects of caffeine. The most prominent is that it reversibly blocks the action of adenosine on its receptor and consequently prevents the onset of drowsiness induced by adenosine. Caffeine also stimulates certain portions of the autonomic nervous system. <\/td><\/tr> 94-07-5 <\/td> Synephrine<\/a><\/td> C9H13NO2 <\/td> 167.21 <\/td> Synephrine, that can be extracted from the young fruits Citrus aurantium L, is a drug product in Europe that was originally produced as a synthetic derivative of amphetamine for use as a sympathomimetic. <\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"